English Literature

Perhaps one of the best loved of the works of Ernest Hemmingway, The Old Man and the Sea, has been seen to be a symbolism of many things in life.  There are those who regard the tale as an allegory on life and others who see this as an existentialist piece that reflects the struggles of man.  While these interpretations can certainly be argued as plausible, the beauty of this piece is in the way in challenges the mind to draw up similarities and establish lesson.  One such theme is that on the influences of the times that are reflected in the tale of The Old Man and the Sea, particularly the underlying Cuban influences.

Published in the year 1952, The Old Man and the Sea, came out at a time when relations between countries such as Cuba and the U.S. were, in general, rather cordial since 1934.  That year marked the end of the Platt Amendment that had given the U.S. the right to intervene in Cubas affairs.  However, American ownership of many Cuban sugar mills was a constant source of dispute.  It is necessary to note that in the year 1952, President Prio Socarras was overthrown in a military coup by General Fulgencio Batista (Jobes, 21).  Batista was before that a dictator from 1933 to 1940.  He would rule again until 1959, when he would be overthrown by Fidel Castro (Jobes, 21).  Hemingway then moved to Ketchum, Idaho, soon after Castro and his supporters overthrew the Batista regime.  The writer had supported both the overthrow and what he called the historical necessity of the Castro revolution.  As such, these same sentiments and political ideologies are evident in this book.
           
In order to understand the historical and cultural background of the novel, it is important to mention Cuban culture as well.  It is marked most of all by an ambivalent position concerning the Catholic Church in the first half of the twentieth century.  Not as similar as in other Latin American countries, there was an active separation of Church and state in Cuba.  However, due to its long Spanish heritage, Cuba was still largely dominated by Catholic cultural impacts.  As a result there was a contradictory situation in which eighty-five (85) percent of the whole Cuban population called itself Catholic, and only ten (10) percent actually practiced their root faith (Kashkin, 24).  This is depicted on several occasions in Hemingways The Old Man and the Sea. For instance, when Santiago fights with the marlin, he says the following, I am not religious, but I will say ten Our Fathers and ten Hail Marys that I should catch this fish, and I promise to make a pilgrimage to the Virgin of Cobre if I catch him. (Hemingway)  Then, a bit later, after the fish had been killed, the old man wonders whether it is a sin to hope that he will make it back to shore with the fishs meat intact, but he rather fast rejects the thought. He thought the following, Do not think about sin. There are enough problems now without sin. Also I have no understanding of it (Hemingway).

In comparison with other Latin Americans, Cubans, put a high value on the inner worth of the individual.  Santiago is considered to be a skilled and unique person even though he has not caught a fish in three months.  As seen with the eyes of Manolin and the omniscient narrator of the story, Santiago is being a heroic character who, as compared with Odysseus or even Christ, has undergone a great ordeal and gives an example to emulate.

Maleness, or machismo, is being an essential male aim in traditional Latin American society. It is ideally realized in ways, involving military, athletic, and intellectual exercises, and sexual prowess. The majority of men in Cuba are supposed to live up to the machismo ideal in traditional manners.  So by cultivating these powers, the person can approach becoming the ideal man. For example, Santiago is adored due to his physical power of endurance. He is proud of having in his youth defeated a powerful Negro in an all-day hand-wrestling contest conducted in Casablanca.  He takes a high value on such mental qualities as his self-confidence and his vast knowledge of the tricks of fishing.  Yet, despite his so machismo qualities, he is still not respected by the other fishermen, and is regarded as old and unlucky.

In his quest for bravado and to stand up for his machismo, Santiago bets everything (in the meaning of the fish has) against only my will and my intelligence.  One should note also that in his own life, the writer as well strove to challenge himself intellectually via his friendships and writing, and also physically, via boxing, war service, hunting, fishing, and bullfighting (Mellow, 27). However, the writer may be sometimes criticized for what is widely comprehended as an attraction to violence for its own benefit it is not difficult to understand the reason why the Latin American belief in maleness appealed to Hemingway (Kashkin, 35).
       
When the novel was published in the year 1952 to broad critical acclaim, twelve years had passed since the authors previous critical success called For Whom the Bell Tolls. His key writing effort in the course of the intervening period, Across the River and into the Trees (1950), had been broadly dismissed as a near-parody of the writers traditional style and themes. However, The Old Man and the Sea was a well-known success, and nearly 5.3 million copies were sold in the process of two days since its publication in a particular edition of Life magazine (Meyers, 15).  Although there were some complaints coming from critics concerning the stilted language of some of the Latin American transliterations, some of them considered Santiagos philosophizing to be unrealistic. However, the novel was rewarded with the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in the year 1953. One year later, the author himself won the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Perhaps the Cuban influence and political ideology comes from the infatuation that Hemmingway displays for Latino Machismo.  The work The Old Man and the Sea was especially accepted with praise for its describing of a new dimension to the usual Hemmingway hero, being less macho and more respectful of life (Jobes, 14).  Particularly in his main character Santiago, the writer had at last achieved a personage that could meet the human condition and survive without cynically dismissing it or dying while attempting to better it. Besides, Hemingway had released a vehicle to proclaim the power of love in a broader and deeper way than in his previous works in the old mans relationship with the world and all those people around him.

However, apart from all else, some believe that The Old Man and the Sea was simply an representation of the enmity that the writer felt concerning the criticism of his most recent work called Across the River and into the Trees (Jobes, 14). Taking into consideration the fact that his previous stories had been accepted positively by the public, the abject disdain for his latest novel not only caused him huge emotional pain, but also pushed him towards writing a new fictional work that might capture the minds and hearts of the proletariat and critical public (Kashkin, 25).

It is necessary also to mention that the old man Santiago lends insight into Hemingways psyche at the time, and that he could perceive himself even as martyr-esque, the beaten up aged man that yet up to the time felt a necessity to battle the good fight. One even could notice that in the novel, after some long period of stasis, he at last completes the prodigal big catch, only in order to see it snipped at and eaten away as he attempted with all his powers to bring it to fruition as financially and so personally.

Michelle Cottle, currently the Senior Editor of The New Republic, published her article entitled Turning Boys into Girls on Washington Monthly in May of 1998.

A rhetorical analysis of the article reveals the basic truth behind Mens Health magazine and the various advertisements directed at improving mens appearance its all about marketers greed capitalizing on mens vanity, fear and insecurity  yet paradoxically, it is, according to the author herself, something that brings about gender equity and that the entire business of turning boys into girls is definitely the long-awaited feministic solution to gender equality.

Michelle Cottle tried to achieve her purpose by using a variety of rhetorical strategies that include figures of speech particularly hyperbole, allusion, pun and persuasive words, to mention a few. However, I have noticed that the whole article is peppered with Cottles sarcastic personal comments that created a sort of bittersweet humor that makes readers laugh derisively at the particular group of people that Cottle seems to consider inferior  men.

Rhetorical Strategies
Michelle Cottle employed several rhetorical strategies in order to get her purpose through. This paradox of mens magazines trying to prey on mens fears and insecurities and the supposed cultural advantage that women get from such manipulation is perfectly delivered by Cottle through, first of all, her creative and sarcastic use of humor.

Sarcastic Humor. Sarcastic humor is found in the following lines Instead of battling to get society fixated in something besides our breast size, we should have been fighting spandex with spandex (Turning Boys into Girls). She also says that with more and more men buying these magazines, it is not impossible that future TV commercials would feature men whining about having inherited their mothers thighs and Cottle sarcastically calls it progress.

She also has numerous side comments enclosed in parentheses all over the article and one of the most humorous of which refers to the April issue of Mens Health where the reader is recommended to commemorate Buddhas birthday by dining in a Japanese restaurant. Cottle goes like Why readers should go Japanese in honor of the most famous religious leader in Indias history remains unclear (Turning Boys into Girls). Then she mentions one article trying to urge men to drop a few pounds so that the next time you throw a sideline tantrum, at least people wont say, look at that the crazy fat man (Turning Boys into Girls).

Aside from these, let us take a closer look at how Cottle reacted sarcastically to a line quoted from Forbes speaking in behalf of all men Plastic surgery is more of a cosmetic thing for women. They have a thing about aging. For men its an investment that pays a pretty good dividend. Whatever you say, guys (Turning Boys into Girls).

Personally, I can imagine Cottle herself as a stage comedienne saying these lines in front of a twenty something and middle-aged audience and eliciting bursts of hilarious laughter from them every time she would mention the sarcastic parts.

Statistical Information. Another very effective strategy Cottle employed is the unsparing use of statistical data in order to reinforce her claims. From her claims that 20 percent of American men who get manicures to 690,000 men who had cosmetic procedures in 1996 alone to the 510 percent growth of Mens Health advertising since 1991 (Turning Boys into Girls), Cottle has effectively led the readers to believe her claims without even trying to think about how these figures statistically correlate with her arguments or even whether they are from reliable sources or not.
Personally I think that due to the overwhelmingly huge figures, the readers are apt to accept them as true lest their investigation into the reliability of these statistics would just interfere with the emotional momentum that Cottles article has already gotten them into.

Authoritative Opinion. The mention of the opinions of seemingly qualified sources like Forbes and the grooming editor of Mens Journal has also been used by Cottle in order to intensify the air of authority she is trying to show when presenting her claims.

Personally I believe the reader may readily accept these as true for there could be no other way to confirm its validity except to have the desire to doubt Cottles words herself. I am sure the reader would not be able to see any clear reason for doing so lest he loses track of the pace of the article. Therefore all attempts to confirm the validity of such statements would prove insignificant or futile from a normal human perspective.

Figures of Speech. Figures of speech have also been generously used by Cottle.
Hyperboles are present, especially in the first part of the article, in phrases such as dewy-eyed pre-teen waifs and men with glutes flexed so tightly you could bounce a check on them (Turning Boys into Girls). Personally I think these hyperboles are also humorous and impressive  that is, they create an indelible impression on the readers about what these mens magazines are all about. Cottle has built a very strong description of these magazines  a technique which she used in order to ensure that her subsequent criticisms of them will also be as equally vivid. I think Cottle understands the idea that the best way to criticize your ugly friend is just simply to describe his face in detail.

Allusions to famous personalities like Kate Moss, Jack Kennedy and Sharon Stone have also been used by Cottle in order to explain what men and womens ideal standards of perfection are despite general claims of inner beauty.

An apostrophe (the figure of speech, not the punctuation mark) is also used when Cottle mentioned the line Vanity, Thy Name is Man (Turning Boys into Girls).

The last of the figures of speech cleverly employed by the author is pun, especially when she mentions Better nutrition is not the primary issue. Better butt is and Tons of useful stuff or Tons of expensive stuff (Turning Boys into Girls).

Emotional Words and Phrases. Cottles choice of emotional words and phrases is also efficient and powerfully persuasive in terms of conveying her ideas and purpose. She uses words and phrases like insane, narcissistic, sexual neuroses, and winner.

Rapport. Another technique employed by Cottle include is establishing rapport with the reader by using the first person point of view such as in Dont you see ladies Weve been going about this equality business all wrong and by saying that Everyone wants to be considered attractive and desirable (Turning Boys into Girls).

I think that using statements like these will make the reader closer to the author and therefore more vulnerable to his or her persuasion. I think that the best thing to do when one is writing an article or essay which is full of the authors biased opinion is to occasionally make the reader agree with a few points until he or she agrees with everything else in the article. It is clear that Michelle Cottle is an expert at this.

Weakness of the Presentation of the Purpose
Despite the effective use of rhetorical strategies that Cottle used to deliver the purpose of the article, I believe she has committed one flaw in the presentation of her purpose.

I believe it is obvious that there is a lack of clarity on where her opinions lie when it comes to mens magazines in general and Mens Health in particular. Is she against it as what she mentions in the first part of the article  that the efforts of mens magazines in turning boys into girls will result in favor of women in such a way that the burden of vanity and self-loathing will be shared by all Or is Cottle against mens magazines especially when she said that Mens Health provides the ideal meeting place for mens insecurities and marketers greed (Turning Boys into Girls).

The less critical reader, I believe, will think that Cottle is here to attack mens magazines in cold blood while the more critical reader would see the ultimate point of Michelle Cottles Turning Boys into Girls  that this woman is lashing out at what she considers to be a seemingly puny way of men in living out their culture and for which she directly cricitizes Mens Health and mens magazines  symbols of men and masculinity.

The point is not the magazines but the inferiority of men in general, the ridiculousness of their ideas, and the weakness of their wills as opposed to the natural-born inclination of the female species to be all of the above, thereby making men appear as the copycats of women.

I think the true purpose of Cottles article is gender equity, which she mentions only sparingly at the beginning and at the end of the article. I think she believes that the whole business of turning boys into girls is ridiculous, not because boys are supposed to be boys but because boys are not supposed nor do they have any rights to be girls  which she, in her article, obviously considers to be the stronger sex.

The problem is that, due to the unclear and seemingly disorganized flow of Cottles ideas, the less critical reader will not be able to spot her main purpose at first sight and will just dismiss the article as a simple tirade against mens magazines. And if it were just a simple tirade against mens magazines preying on men, then why a female author to defend the male species

CONCLUSION
From analyzing Turning Boys into Girls and from a careful and detailed examination of the authors points of view, I have personally found two things Firstly, the author clearly reveals the naked truth about the insidious strategy behind mens magazines, but secondly and after a more critical evaluation of the article, she is not doing this exposition of the truth in order to spare the men by simply dissuading them from following advice from mens magazines  she is doing all these to reinforce her claims on the weakness of their wills and the lousiness of their ideas and belief systems. Above all this, she thinks this is, for all women, not only vindication but sweet revenge.

Excel 2007 is a spreadsheet application that was released by Microsoft in 2007 and it is a predecessor to Excel 2003. Many new features are included in Excel 2007 compared to Excel 2003. Here we will talk about statistical modeling using spreadsheet Excel 2007 for decision making.

In operations research it is important to make decisions based on the statistical information and one of the major ways to do it is by using spread sheets. Using Excel 2007 Visual Basic Applications developers can use custom built solutions to make decisions. This is helpful in making decisions in supply chain management and can help organizations reduce costs in inventory and human resource.

For example automated results could be obtained from a file that has sorted list of purchase and sales orders with date. A user may also able to v6u537u8project the profits just by using the VBA application which is created once and can be applied to any number of data sets.

Statistical modeling can be done by compiling a code in the form of PCode. It is important to know that the code that is written cannot be a standalone application and can only be run within the Excel 2007.with the VBA code the actions can be faster and results can be obtained much faster , also using the VBA code the columns details can be changed much faster.

To use macros in the MS Excel VBA is needed but to use VBA you dont need to use visual basic it is already included with the MS office applications, to edit and use the macros the built-in functionality in the excel is called the VB editor . The integrated part of VB editor , the compiler executes the code

Visual basic for applications in MS Excel 2007

These macros are used to automate a complex or recurring job. Macros can be saved in the specific Excel workbook or globally.

Security feathers can easily be introduced in the these macros to disable its use by unauthenticated users.

Mothers and mother figures play pivotal roles in childrens literature and fairy tales. This is because mother figures play such an important part in our childhoods in real life. The typical image of a mother figure is that of a caretaker, nurturer, protector and educator. They offer guidance, leadership and wisdom about good and evil, right and wrong, and the valuable moral lessons that one must learn early in life to develop into a well-rounded, capable, responsible adult. We expect mothers to be the foundation for the family and the representation of everything good, honest and true. In fairy tales, however, the mother or mother figure is often represented in a much different light. Fairy tales strip down archetypes of traditional roles and often portray them in a much more realistic sense. Both Hansel and Gretel and Alices Adventures in Wonderland feature mothers or mother figures that are different than the traditionally infallible and virtuous role in which mothers are usually placed. As with other fairy tales and childrens stories, these two pieces of literature show not only the imperfections possible for mothers, but also that mother figures can be found in characters other than the actual mother. These two pieces of childrens literature prove that no mother is perfect and that mother figures can be found or represented in unlikely people.

The family structure in Hansel and Gretel is, at first glance, a normal one. The hardworking father struggles to provide for his wife and two loving children.  But when the family falls on hard times, it is the mother that comes up with the solution to abandon the children in the woods to lighten their financial burden. Villains that lie and conspire in fables and fairy tales are often male, but the mother in this otherwise seemingly perfect family possesses many of the negative characteristics usually attributed to male villains, monsters or evildoers. The father, a character that is normally a strong, stable breadwinner figure, is instead represented as the weak member of the family that is coerced into doing something he doesnt believe in.

Hansel and Gretels mother is the antithesis of the caring mother or supportive wife. After she presents the idea to her husband to leave the children in the woods and be rid of them (330), she pesters and hounds him until he finally gives in and agrees to go along with her plan. She makes him feel guilty by telling him that if he doesnt conspire with her against the children, it will be his fault that the whole family dies of hunger. This is clearly meant to emasculate him for being incapable of providing for his family, and to convince him that he has no choice. When her plan fails the first time, she uses the same tactics to convince the loving father to abandon his children a second time. To make sure her plan works, she even locks Hansel in his room to prevent him from gathering rocks to help him find his way home. She is clearly self-motivated, conniving and willing to manipulate her husband by whatever means necessary to get what she wants.

The mother in Hansel and Gretel shows a complete lack of warmth or emotion towards her children. She shows no remorse the day she abandons them, calling Gretel fool and lazybones (331) instead of addressing her by name. She lies to the children repeatedly, telling them, we will be back to fetch you (333) when she knows they wont and seems to have no guilt for lying to them or abandoning them. Even on the day that she abandons her children to die in the woods, she shows no compassion or warmth towards them. The Brothers Grimms view towards this type of mother is evident in the way the actions of Hansel and Gretels mother are mirrored in those of the old woman in the woods. The old woman, the archetypal villain or monster in the fairy tale, calls Gretel, lazybones (337) just like the mother. The old woman also shows a complete lack of remorse for planning to roast and eat the children. In the end, the children and their father only manage to live happily ever after when both women are dead. The old woman is given a taste of her own medicine when Gretel shoves her into the same oven she was planning to use to roast Hansel in, and the mother has died of unspecified causes by the time the children escape the old woman and find their way home. Both deaths are advantageous. The children use the old womans stash of jewels and pearls to find their way home. Once they do, they are returned to the loving arms of their father without their conniving mother, plus all their financial woes are taken care of with the wealth they took from the old womans hut.

Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland is told almost entirely in a fantasy world full of talking animals, magic and living playing cards. There is no actual mother to Alice present in the story. The mother figure in the story is an unlikely character Alice herself. The reader is presented with Alice at the beginning of the novel as a bored, mischievous little girl, but as she makes her way through Wonderland the reader is shown how she grows up during her journey and takes on many adult roles and responsibilities throughout her adventure.

Alices transition from a young girl to a mother figure upon falling down the rabbit hole is represented in her actions while shes in Wonderland and the statements she says and thinks during her adventure. She treats several of the creatures in Wonderland with the authority of a maternal figure. She leads the creatures out of the pool of her tears and gives up her own candy to make sure every participant in the caucus-race has a prize. It is not typical to expect a young girl to so generously give up all the candy in her pockets to make sure everyone around her has some. This is more similar to a mother giving treats to all the children in her charge so they all feel included and special. Her first fear after falling down the rabbit hole is not for her own safety or ability to escape, but that no one will remember to feed her cat, Dinah, and the cat will be hungry. Later she saves the baby from harm by rescuing it when the cook is throwing pots and pans in the kitchen. She takes the baby with her to keep it safe, even though she admits to herself that shes not sure how she will care for it once she returns home from being down the rabbit hole. These are both clear examples of the presence of a maternal instinct. In both cases, she is concerned for the safety and wellbeing of a creature smaller and more vulnerable than herself, protecting them as a mother would a child.

Alice also speaks like an adult mother figure and is referred to in adult terms several times throughout the novel. When she cries at the unexpected consequences of drinking the Drink Me potion, she reprimands herself like a mother would a child throwing a tantrum You ought to be ashamed of yourself, a great girl like you, to go on crying this way (28). Later, she refers to her childhood in the past tense and states that she is an adult. Ironically, it is the subject of fairy tales that makes her realize she has made this transition. I used to read fairy taleswhen I grow up, Ill write onebut Im grown up now (58). She later doubtfully refers to herself as a little girl (84) just before the Duchess calls her dear old thing (147), indicating that the residents of Wonderland view her as an adult too. The Duchesss calling Alice old is odd, given that Alice initially recoils from the Duchess when she meets her because the woman is so old and wrinkled and speaks and behaves in an antiquated way that irritates and confuses Alice. To turn the tables and have Alice be the one who is verbally identified as old signifies that adults recognize the change in Alice and are acknowledging that she is no longer the little girl she once was. Alices maternal treatment of the creatures, her logical plan of action to return to her normal size and get out of the rabbit hole to go home, and the way the creatures treat her as a wise, adult figure all make Alice a mother figure to herself and the creatures and animals she encounters in Wonderland.

The Brothers Grimms representation of an actual mother presents her as in imperfect woman driven by greed and self-motivation. Her lack of love, caring or maternal behavior towards her children makes her an unexpected fairy tale villain. The consequences of her actions are represented in her juxtaposition with the child-eating old woman in the woods and the demise that comes to both of them for their evil deeds. The children and their father, however, are rewarded with wealth and a life as a happy family for their virtuousness and unwillingness to give up, in spite of the fact that Gretel murdered the old woman in order to escape. Carroll shows the reader that mother figures can exist in people other than actual mothers, and that a maternal instinct can be found in just about anyone with a good heart and compassionate soul when need be. Alice began the novel as a little girl, but she became more of an adult and a mother figure both to herself and the characters she encountered in Wonderland not because she consciously chose to, but because the instinct was inside of her and the situations she faced called for that mother figure to be called into action. Alice guides herself through Wonderland, telling herself not to cry, solving problems logically, caring for those around her in need, always being polite when asking for help and always helping others when asked, even if shes unsure of the situation. This is a true representation of a mother figure discovered in the character of a little girl. Young Alice proved to be more of a virtuous mother figure than Hansel and Gretels real mother because she acted on her maternal instinct and did what any good mother would do.

Annotated Bibliography
Botkin, D.B., Saxe, H., Araujo, M.B., Betts, R., Bradshaw, R.H., Cedhagen, T., Chesson, P., Dawson, T., Etterson, J., Faith, D., Simon, F., Guisan, A., Hansen, A., Hilbert, D., Loehle, C., Margules, C., New, M., Sobel, M.  Stockwell, D.  Forecasting the effects of global warming on biodiversity.  BioScience 57.3 (2000) 227-236. Web. 04 Feb. 2010.

The need for proper forecasting of the effects of global warming on the diversity of species on Earth is very vital for the execution of necessary preventive measures in order to avoid or to lessen the perceived negative effects. Four uses of forecasting models were enumerated in this article and these were the following (1) individual species model, (2) niche-theory model that organize species based on habitat and environmental conditions, (3) general circulation models and ocean-atmosphere models, and (4) species-area curve models that takes into account the large aggregates of species. Researchers discovered that the fusion of the analysis of fossil records and modern genetic techniques can result to appropriate forecasting procedures. In general, this paper is very useful for people who seek ways on how to properly assess the potential effects of the current global warming to the assemblage of creatures on this world today.

Cox, P.M., Betts, R.A., Jones, C.D., Spall, S.A.,  Totterdell,I. J.  Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model.  Nature 408 (2000) 184-187. Web. 04 Feb. 2010.

The continuous increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is seen to render unwanted effects to global climate. While it is true that a large portion of the anthropogenic carbon  emissions are being absorbed by the ocean and land ecosystems, a big part of these absorbed carbon residues are still deemed return to the biosphere thereby creating carbon cycle-feedbacks. These feedbacks can significantly accelerate climate change in the 21st century. It is perceived that by 2050, the terrestrial ecosystem must have reached its maximum carbon dioxide uptake rate and will then act as a source that will return the accumulated chemical back in to the humans and other biological creations. Consequently, this journal article is a very informative and eye-opening scientific study and will provide basic and empirically-driven knowledge on the forthcoming effects of carbon dioxide accumulation.

Held, I.M.  Soden, B.J.  Robust responses of the hydrological cycle to global warming.  Journal of Climate 19 (2006) 5686-5699. Web. 04 Feb. 2010.

Of the many many negative effects that are associated to global warming, changes on the hydrological cycle is perceived to be one of the most alarming. Based on the experimental reports  of the Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, researchers were able to identify hydrological responses which were robust across the models and these are the following decrease in convective mass fluxes, increase in horizontal moisture transport, enhancement of the pattern of evaporation minus precipitation, and the decrease in horizontal sensible heat transport in the extratropics. Furthermore, these responses were associated to the increase of carbon dioxide emissions. Hence, this article reveals important information which can be used in order to predict the potential effects of global warming to natural water formations.  

Memmott, J., Craze, P.G., Waser, N.M.  Price, M.V.  Global warming and the disruption of plant-pollinator interactions.  Ecology Letters 10.8 (2007) 710-717.Web. 04 Feb. 2010.

Disruption of mutualistic (mutually beneficial) relationships between species is considered to be one of he ecological reactions to global warming. To further investigate this claim, the researchers of this study made use 1420 pollinator and 429 plant species to explore the changes that can occur on ubiquitous mutualistic interactions of terrestrial habitats. Researchers eventually found out that phenological shifts, as dictated by climate change and global warming, resulted to a reduction of 17-50 of pollinator species. In the long run, it is believed that continuous climate change will result to the loss of mutualistic plant-pollinator relationship that will surely signal the start of the extinction of these life forms. In general, this article provided highly vital information regarding the specific effects of global warming to symbiotic relationships.    

Root, T.L., Price, J.T., Hall, K.R., Schneider, S.H., Rosenzweig, C.  Pounds, J.A.  Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants.  Nature 421 (2003) 57-60. Web. 04 Feb. 2010.

Gradual increase in global temperature was observed for the past 100 years and this is depicted by the 0.6C approximate temperature increase. In line with this, responses to global warming has been exhibited by various species and one of the most notable of these is the temp-related shifts in the lifestyle of wild animals. Meta-analyses of 143 studies reveal that the detrimental impacts of global warming is already visible to wild animals and plant species as shown by the changes on their eating habits and other physiological responses or fingerprint. These biological fingerprints suggest that the animal and plant species have been adjusting to the changes of the temperature long before this activity was even detected by man. Potential end results of these fingerprinting are reformulation of species communities, extirpations, and extinction. In general, this journal article is a very useful reference in the investigation of the dynamics of global warming and its effects to wild animals and plants.

The thing about literature is its often associated with the classics.  Although I cant help but agree, I also feel that its but right to try and focus on a piece of fiction that for some reason, captured the young people of today - the Twilight Series.

Perhaps the movie made it worse, or maybe, the Internet did, whatever is the reason, I cant help but notice that its a trend I cannot simply ignore.  It may pass but until then, Id like to be part of that group who knows whats happening than rather be part of that group who is ignorant of timely literature   even if its fiction.

The Twilight Series in essence, is a chic literature focusing on the love story between a human and a vampire (Bella and Edward)   something repelling so to speak. Meshed with that romance is the existence of the best friend-wolf, Jacob whos also in love with Bella making the love story a love triangle instead.  Further intricacies on family, sex, crime, society and culture makes the story more compelling (in one way or another) and as mentioned, truly popular.  This includes having vampire enemies, getting the vampire council (Volturi) interested and trying not to get killed or turned into a vampire in brutal way.  Come to think of it, its really a vampire story, just an awful setting and mushy direction to build up the story.  Many women  buy that .  They fall for the love spell over the gore and monstrousity of it.

Newtons Third Law of Motion states that  for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.  I have to establish that this essay adheres to that, even if you cant measure the  amount  of the reactants and the reaction itself.  A cause and an effect, when applied to life experiences, do not have an  end  result.  It becomes a continuous and evolving energy that moves itself without being noticed.  The gift of choice is a powerful tool, only, many abuse the fact that they have the options to choose from.

It was described in the book that Wolves are actually the protector of men.  Vampires being predators became the wolves greatest enemy as they are capable of killing and hurting human beings, something that the wolves will not allow.  Over time, the number of wolves has lessened as vampires began to choose solitary lives, most of the time, away from both humans and civility alike.  It was now vampires nature to move from one place to another and to feed with respect to life.  A new era is being born and along those lines came the Cullens, a group of 7 who has chosen a  vegetarian diet  (feeding off from animals and not on humans) and opting peach over the cold war with the wolves.  The Cullens and the Wolf pack of La Push made a truce, an agreement to keep the peace, respect territory and co-exist.  In a way, that agreement favors the pack and the human beings because it generally states the limitations the Cullens have in order to stay in Forks   that they will stay away from La Push, that they will not make more vampires and they will survive off in whatever diet, as long as its not murder (human).  Come to think of it, the Cullens must really either love humans too much or too tired to be the vampire that they were.  Their will, strength and power are more than enough to instill what they want and get it, but they chose otherwise.

It so happened that in that group of 7, one was isolatedsingled out for being so picky in finding a companion.  It was never going to be an issue for him until the first cause came.

The first cause is the arrival of Bella Swan.  Bella Swan is the daughter of Forks Chief, Charlie Swan.  She grew up with her mother but has decided to leave and move in with her dad.  She felt that her mother may not be saying anything but she knew that her mother would love to spend quality time and travel with her steady boyfriend.  With her out of the  worry , her mother will have a chance to be happy.  She just loves her mother too much.  Now, Bella is a very independent adolescent but what sets her apart are the weird things, like her unusual preference for books over clothes and parties and her leaning to instrumental music  She wasnt the friendly or talkative type either.  She was just a quiet kid who loves her mother so much that she will trade her good life to a different one in Forks   that weird of a person.  Bella has issues against her dad but nothing that shall ruin her sense of respect for him.  Her coming to Forks brought about a wave of effect on many people.

Charlie now has to face dealing with an adolescent.  Never choosing to re-marry, his life was mostly about his work and his friends.  Bella is now part of that list and major adjustment has to happen.  Being a new girl in town, Bella also affected the school.  Many boys were interested, mostly with how she looks rather than whatever other reason.   Even, Bellas childhood friend, Jacob, seemed interested. Then, there was Edward.

Bellas arrival meant one thing for Edward displacement.  When she arrived, Edward immediately noticed two things a quiet mind (he couldnt hear her thoughts) and a repugnant smell (her human blood is so strong its hard to resist the craving).  That means, for the first time in Edwards vampire existence, he couldnt quite figure out how to handle himself or better yet, how to handle Bella. And that was proven across the books with the actions he took.

So the first way to affect a character in a story is by mere existence or arrival.  This is true for Edward and Im sure, for Jacob too.

The second cause Id like to focus on is Bellas reaction to Jacob.  Bella was never the type of girl who will choose to lead you on.  Having that look of innocence and being a stranger in the town, it was hard to question her actions or doubt her intentions.  Going to La Push and taking time to be with Jacob, even if her mind was on Edward, was a sleek ploy.  What she found out then did help her have more ideas about Edward but what she did has a different effect on Jacob.  It was the beginning or probably, the continuation of Jacobs further interest in her.

Id like to say that taking the initiative to  do something  affects every other factor surrounding that action.  The action outweighs the intention.  I think if Bella didnt have to be so convincing with Jacob, he wouldnt have to suffer through the Twilight Series.  I think things would have changed a lot if she was honest with her intentions and if she was direct with her questions.  Why would it be so difficult to ask a guy something about another guy  Is it that pre-conceived notion that men are not supposed to be well-informed Or shall I say...  nosy  

If I was to focus on Bellas perspective based on the action she made, I would say that she was pretty successful.  I guess she was just not thinking of the possible consequence or repercussion of her actions.  In a way, everything she did throughout the book can be described as one thing she was in love with Edward all along.   She caught his interest, she tracked him and well, she got his attention.  I know that her being clumsy and all is part of the Bella picture, however, I just cant throw out that fact   that she was a disturbed and obsessed teenager.

Earlier I mentioned how the gift of choice makes a difference in life experiences.  In the wild, nature takes care of the plants and the life cycle continues, but that was just it   either they survive or they die  With human beings, its different.  They act upon a situation by assessing which will bring forth the most ideal result.  It may start off as a list of options but in the end, it was going to be  To do or not to do  and this is why I think the actual action   the initiative to do something, moves or affects a character as much as the first cause.

The third cause Id like to focus on is the  reaction  to an arrival.  This shall seal my notion about Newtons third law and closes my three causes in a circle.  The example I mentioned earlier pertains to Bellas arrival and the effect it brought about everyone.  This time, Id like to focus on the reaction   which is both the effect and the cause of something else.

After meeting Bella, Edward wanted to change his schedule and do everything he can to prevent seeing Bella.  This made Bella curious and was going to be the basis of the next turn of events, until the time that both of them found themselves in love with each other.

Jacob, on the other hand, made an extra effort after finding out that Bella arrived.  He drove the car he fixed for Charlie towards his house.  This made Bella feel grateful, knowing someone from long ago but Jacob, I guess didnt see it that way (and especially after the second cause).

There were other  arrival  situations within the book at where the reactioneffect became the cause of another.

After James covens arrival during the baseball match, Edwards reaction was that of unease, discomfort and immediate worry as such, he jumped on having to protect Bella.  Although he has every reason to do so, this reaction brought about a challenge for James   one that moved the story further into a rising piece.

James was another vampire passing through Forks but because of Edwards reaction, he took matters into a much complicated cause   to kill Bella, annoy Edward and pick up a fight.

The Cullens reaction on that was similar to Edward   to that of protection but I find Bellas reaction really funny.  She just went by whatever the vampires thought was best   which based on the book was better than by fending for herself.  Come to think of it, Bella rarely had a reaction that she acted upon in the book, whenever there was something that arrives or something that was acknowledged as existing, Bella does one thing, be afraid, be a victim.  I know thats too harsh of a description, its just annoying, it was always Bella needing saving.

Another example is The Cullens arrival brought about the reaction of  agreement  between the Wolves.  One that Edward was soon going to break and Jacob was going to prevent.

Discussing cause and effect is a fallacy, at least in my perspective.  Its an endless cycle of determining causes and effects, bringing about a reaction, a new cause and another effect.  One cause can bring about a penchant of results, in turn being causes themselves for other events.  Its like genetics.  There is really no finding out how it started or from where.  In literature on the other hand, in books, to be specific, it doesnt have to be too broad.  Pre-conditions and limitations are established and it will be easier to determine what was the first cause and how things fell into picture.  This is how it was for me with the book, Twilight.

Introduction
Despite his initial protests to the contrary, there is a wealth of evidence to suggest that Tennessee Williams indeed intended to create in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof a major character in the form of Brick who was unequivocally homosexual in a society which viewed such a sexual orientation as a serious deviation from social expectations and norms.  A review of the academic literature reveals that homosexuality was a theme which pervaded much of Williams work in one form or another at the same time, the literature also tends to take a neutral view toward Bricks actual sexual orientation.  This paper will argue, on the other hand, that Williams did create Brick as a homosexual character and that his characterization was deliberately subtle because of the historical context in which the play was written and because of Williams desire to keep his own sexual orientation cloaked from the general public at a time when homosexuals were being persecuted in the United States.

In terms of learning experiences and learning objectives can be derived from a reading and analysis of this piece of literature, there is a wealth of information.  First, this play illustrates in a very profound way how literature can be used as a form of social or political criticism.  Writers can create characters, settings, and conflicts in order to present real matters of social and political debate.  Second, this play demonstrates the oppressive constraints which can be imposed by dominant social and cultural values.  In the instant play, for instance, not even a genuine feeling of love can transcend these dominant social values, expectations, and constraints.  Finally, this play highlights the vulnerability of a sensitive male by creating an environment in which only strength and aggressiveness are viewed as positive male traits.  This can, as this paper will show, lead to a devastating sense of emotional loneliness and psychological trauma.  The following discussion and analysis are written with these specific learning experiences and learning objectives in mind.
Historical Context  Tennessee Williams and American Taboos in the 1950s

As an initial matter, it is important to place Williams play in its proper historical context.  This is especially true with respect to this papers thesis, that homosexuality was a more important and pervasive theme with respect to Brick than is commonly acknowledged, because the academic literature seems to deny or otherwise minimize Bricks homosexuality while emphasizing Skippers confession of a homosexual attraction to Brick.  It is certainly true that scholars and commentators have discussed in detail the homosexual theme what emerges from a careful review of these commentaries, however, is a rather persistent suggestion that Bricks drinking and his general sense of unhappiness was more connected to his sadness toward events generally rather than the consequence of the death of his true love.  Part of this confusion has been fuelled by the playwrights own words more specifically, when questioned about Bricks sexuality back in 1955, Tennessee Williams stated that

Brick is definitely not a homosexual . . . Bricks self-pity and recourse to the bottle are not the result of a guilty conscience in that regard.... It is his bitterness at Skippers tragedy that has caused Brick to turn against his wife and find solace in drink, rather than any personal involvement, although I do suggest that, at least at some time in his life, there have been unrealized abnormal tendencies
This quote demonstrates that even the creator of the play was being mendacious or that he retained unresolved opinions about his main character.  He begins by stating that Brick was unequivocally of a heterosexual orientation at the end of the quote, however, Williams delicately suggests that Brick was in fact in possession of what he characterized as abnormal tendencies and that these tendencies or urges were never physically consummated.  The most that can be derived from this quotation from the playwright is a superficial conclusion to the effect that Brick never engaged in physical sexual activities with Skipper.  He did nevertheless have sexual urges toward Skipper, he declared his devotion to his best friend both during life and after his subsequent death, and given the textual evidence and the qualifications that Williams made it would seem impossible to conclude that Brick was not homosexual.  Further, given the fact that he is completely uninterested in his beautiful wife from a sexual point of view, it would appear unreasonable to conclude that Brick was of a bisexual orientation.  The most rational interpretation is that Brick was intended as a homosexual character, that this homosexuality could not be written about or otherwise presented explicitly because of social constraints in existence at the time the play was written and performed, and because Williams was worried about criticism of his own sexuality if he presented Bricks homosexuality more forthrightly.

It is well-established in the historical literature that homosexuality remained a taboo topic when Williams wrote Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.  Indeed, it was worse than being taboo and in many instances an admission of homosexuality at this time led to severe social sanctions and consequences.  It has been noted, for instance, that the U.S. Senate held hearings in 1950 on homosexuals and other sex perverts working for the government. These hearings spurred the purge of thousands of gay men and lesbians working in government agencies, and they exacerbated police surveillance of homosexual communities nationwide during the 1950s and into the 1960s.

This surveillance extended to the media and the entertainment industry in which Tennessee Williams was employed.  It has also been noted that homosexuals were treated by the government as being sympathetic to communism and that many homosexuals were unfairly characterized as being both deviant and potential traitors to America.  As a result, and fearing becoming targeted by the government at the time, many homosexuals felt pressure to pass as heterosexual in order to remain employed, they increasingly resented gay male swishes gay men who appropriated female gender mannerisms as visible markers of their sexual identity.  It was within this historical context, in which homosexuals were being targeted as sexual deviants and also as potential communist sympathizers particularly in the entertainment industry, that Tennessee Williams made the aforementioned comments about Bricks sexuality.  It is hardly surprising that he downplayed his intentions with respect to Brick, that both in his interviews and the plays text he presented Bricks true homosexuality very subtly in order to avoid government censor, and that homosexual issues were extraordinarily contentious at the time the play was written.  Thus, for purposes of this papers thesis, it is important to clearly understand the historical framework within which the play was written and performed.  Explicit portrayals of homosexuality were frequently censored and the writers could be blacklisted or worse.  It is hardly surprising, therefore, that Tennessee Williams was so circumspect in his interviews about his creation of Bricks character.  A textual analysis suggests rather forcefully that Brick was intended and functioned as a male homosexual hiding his true sexual orientation from his family and from the society in which he lived.

Personal Context  The Authors Sexuality
In addition to the aforementioned social constraints regarding the portrayal of male homosexuality in a play in the 1950s, some scholars have also focused in the sexual orientation of Tennessee Williams.  One of the more conventional types of analyses in this respect argues that A number of critics have recently argued that what they perceive as Williamss inability to come to terms with his homosexuality resulted in a split in his work between public and private forms of literary discourse.   These conclusions have been based on a comparative study of Williams different types of writing.  It has been noted, for example, that Williams created openly homosexual male characters in both his poetry and in his short stories whereas he failed to portray male homosexuality so explicitly in his plays.  The proffered explanation is that he refused to do so in his plays because they reached a broader audience and might expose his homosexuality to public scrutiny. The only way in which Williams was supposedly willing to express his gay identity in his plays was by refracting it.   The characters in his play, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, must therefore be studied with reference to the historical context and with reference to the playwrights larger body of work.

Thus, before proceeding to a textual analysis of Bricks character, it must be acknowledged that Williams interviews in which he disavowed the possibility that Brick was a deliberately created homosexual character are likely to have been deceptions aimed at self-protection.  First, the government was actively and aggressively waging a cultural war against homosexuals and it would have been personally and professionally dangerous for Williams to have honestly declared in these interviews that Brick was indeed a homosexual.  Second, a review of Williams larger body of work clearly demonstrates that he frequently created highly visible homosexual male characters in private writings with a limited audience whereas he created much more subtle types of homosexual male characters in his plays that were exposed to a much larger audience.  Finally, perhaps attempting to hide his own homosexuality, Williams was fearful of being exposed and subjected to the homosexual and communist witch hunts of the time.  The remainder of this paper will analyze the textual evidence in support of this papers thesis that Brick was unequivocally a homosexual character hiding his sexual orientation from both his family and from society more generally.

Bricks Homosexuality  An Unequivocal Sexual Orientation
Bricks sexual orientation is most clearly illustrated with reference to discussions and disagreements that he has with his wife and with his father. The object of his sexual affection, his old friend and football teammate Skipper, has died before the play commences and the precise nature of the relationship is presented in terms of reflections and commentaries by the living characters.  Perhaps the most pivotal piece of textual evidence pointing to Williams subtle creation of Brick as a homosexual character, at least from an analytical point of view, is the fact that Skipper declared his homosexual attraction to Brick before he died.  Maggie, his wife, continuously sought to understand why her husband was so fond of him and so reluctant to treat her with a similar level of affection.  Indeed, at one point, she traced the origins of this budding homosexual attraction to an earlier time when they were all university students specifically, Maggie stated that  It was one of those beautiful, ideal things they tell about in the Greek legends. It couldnt be anything else, you being you, and thats what made it so sad, thats what made it so awful, because it was love that could never be carried through to anything satisfying or even talked about plainly. Brick, I tell you, you got to believe me, Brick, I do understand all about it I-I think it was noble ... Why I remember when we double-dated at college, Gladys Fitzgerald and I and you and Skipper, it was more like a date between you and Skipper. Gladys and I were just sort of tagging along as if it was necessary to chaperone you--to make a good public impression.

This passage is telling for several reasons.  First, Bricks wife is intimately aware of his lack of a sexual appetite for women.  She is his wife, she is described as being beautiful and witty, and the fact that an ostensibly masculine football player would not be sexually interested in his wife is surprising.  Second, this quote traces Maggies suspicions back a number of years her suggestion that she and Skippers date were merely functioning as social chaperones in the name of social propriety reinforces the notion that the most intimate relationship was always between Brick and Skipper and that women were superfluous.  Finally, this statement has been made by Maggie with her having previously slept with Skipper in an effort to feel more intimate with Brick because she has always known that she and Skipper were in love with Brick whereas Brick resented his wife because he loved Skipper.  Williams has thus created a wife who functions as a personal cover for Bricks hidden sexuality, a chaperone for the plays public audience, and it is quite clear to Maggie if not to the reader that Brick is unequivocally in love with Skipper in the romantic sense.  Bricks denials are predictable in his social environment, much as Williams denial that Brick was a homosexual was motivated by the repressive social environment in which he worked, and these denials function more as attempts to hide than they represent actual denials of the truths being asserted.

Brinks difficult conversation with his father in the second act reinforces the fact that everyone within the play is clearly aware of Brinks sexual orientation.  Whereas his wife represents a sort of chaperone behind whom Brink hides his homosexuality, his father seems to represent society more generally.  Big Daddy, the father, is the head of the family and the head of the family business.  He thereby functions as a sort of masculine model against which Brink is developed as an entirely different type of man.  One scholar has noted in this respect that Big Daddy Pollitt appears to have tyrannical control over his Delta plantation empire, seeming to rule without pity his wife, Big Mama sons, Brick and Gooper daughters-in-law, Maggie and Mae his grandchildren his doctor and his minister HYPERLINK httpwww.questia.comPM.qstaod5000385234(Kullman, 1995, p. 668).   An integral feature of Big Daddys tyrannical masculinity is his definite heterosexual orientation.  At one point during his heated discussion with Brink, for instance, Big Daddy states that Yes, boy. Ill tell you somethingthat you might not guess. I still havedesire for women and this is my sixty-fifth birthday (Williams, 1998, p. 119).  The dominant male role model is therefore heterosexual, he questions his sons sexuality, and he doesnt believe that his lack of sexual interest in Maggie can be attributed to age or boredom.  Once again, however, Brink attempts to deny the true substance of the relationship interestingly, however, he feels obliged to provide his father a further explanation that he had not provided his wife, stating that

Skipper and me had a clean true thing between us-had a clean friendship, practically all our lives, till Maggie got the idea youre talking about. Normal No-It was too rare to be normal, any true thing between two people is too rare to be normal. Oh, once in a while he put his hand on my shoulder or Id put mine on his, oh, maybe even when we were touring the country in pro-football en shared hotel-rooms wed reach across the space between the two beds and shake hands to say goodnight.

Again, Williams is subtle.  He is subtle because he allows Brink to acknowledge feelings of emotional intimacy and minor types of physical contact.  He has Brink admit that this particular relationship between two men was not normal and that they touched while in two beds located close together.  Big Daddy does not believe Brink any more than Maggie, although they are motivated by different concerns and considerations, and Williams deliberate textual choice suggests that the reader as should not believe Brink either.
 
What consistently emerges from a close examination of the textual descriptions and the dialogue is a man who is not allowed to express his sexuality openly and confidently.  He is hiding from his wife, from his father, and from the rest of his family as well as from society more generally.  The conventional wisdom seems to be that Brink turns to alcohol in sadness over his friends death.  The more accurate conclusion might be that Brink felt responsible for Skippers death because he was unable to break free of social norms and constraints in order to admit his romantic attraction as Skipper himself had done.  Skipper had died, figuratively at least of a broken heart, and Brink seems on the road toward drinking himself into an early grave.  The text, in short, is not coherent unless it is read to understand that Brink was himself a homosexual in hiding.  When this type of textual analysis is combined with the historical context in which the play was written, and Tennessee Williams own personal fears about his homosexuality becoming known more widely, it becomes even more likely that Brink was in some ways an alter ego and that his denials were attempts to protect himself in a cruel and judgmental world.

Conclusion
In the final analysis, given all of the available evidence, it seems fair to suggest that art imitated life to a certain extant in Tennessee Williams Cat on a Tin Roof.  The play was written and performed in a time when the American government was persecuting homosexuals and hunting suspected communists.  Brink was the ultimate symbol of American masculinity in certain ways, such as being a physically fit football player, and yet he was nevertheless hiding his homosexuality.  Evidence in the historical record supports such a conclusion, evidence in the authors background and other written work supports such a conclusion, and all of the behavior of the plays characters supports such a conclusion.  Whether Williams was superimposing his own fears onto the characterization of Brink is a plausible line of reasoning though beyond the scope of this paper.  It is enough to conclude that, despite Williams public denials, there is an overwhelming amount of evidence to support the thesis that Brink was deliberately though subtly created as a male homosexual in a world where homosexuality was socially unacceptable.